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Neglect, Misogyny, and Borderline Personality
There is some speculation that the culture of militant martyrdom may stem from the abuse of children at an early age. Militant martyrdom has been described as a result of children being reared in authoritarian fundamentalist familial systems (Kaganovskiy, 2003). Kaganovskiy ultimately explains the phenomenon of terrorism (in this case militant martyrdom) by a lack of empathy by the terrorist. This lack of empathy has been developed in childhood as a result of oppression, impoverishment, and suffering.
However, he argues that these conditions are second to repeated abuse and neglect as a child in the development, or rather non-development of empathy. Furthermore, Kaganovskiy suggests, women in these societies are the major perpetrators of the non-development of empathy in children. He suggests that because of the misogynistic environment and brutalization at the hands of males, women lose their ability to empathize. Therefore, women are not capable of teaching their children, particularly male children, empathy and actually become abusive towards their young. (DeMause, 2002; Janowitz, 2006; Kaganovskiy, 2003) Lachkar (2002) added that suicide attackers have developed a borderline personality disorder that developed because of neglectful and abusive child-rearing practices, frustrating dependency needs and viewing individual desires as weakness. She adds that young boys experience anger and resentment as a result. This may cause them to identify with charismatic leaders, adopt misogynistic and oppression ideologies, and disassociate with anything perceived as womanly, including participating in child-rearing practices (Berko & Erez, 2005; DeMause, 2002; Lachkar, 2002; Steiner, 1974). Thus, the cycle is perpetuated. Bardis (1973) additionally notes that physical violence is most commonly found those with lower social status and lower levels of education. As previously pointed out, there appears to be little positive correlation between poverty and support for terrorist acts (Krueger & Maleckova, 2002). However, this may provide some rationale for the support that is found among low SES Palestinians.
Click Here to read the full article.
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Not everyone believes this but the emotional and mental aspects of a person, when combined, leads to better self improvement.
Emotions love to dominate our actions and reactions, even though we do not want it to happen sometimes. The society often see emotions as a sign of weakness, so people are used to putting them aside and focusing on the rational aspects more and more.
No matter how strict and logical you may be, you will always feel. One way or another, someone or something will get through you.
Positive emotions are a lifelong goal for many of us concerned about emotional health and self improvement. What is more important; the amount of money you made during your life or the times you laughed out of sheer joy?
People tend to put their positive emotions behind their negative feelings. This is one of the biggest problems that people come across during their lives.
There is no clear way to ignore a negative experience and try to replace it with a positive one. Life just does not work that way.
For example, when you were a child, if your goldfish dies, you would be heartbroken. Your parents will probably buy you another goldfish but the sorrow is still there.
Things get even more complex when you become an adult. A fight with your spouse the night before will affect your entire day. You will go to work angry, tired, and your mind will wander. On the way home from work you will not notice the sun shining and you would not be tempted to stop at a roadside stand to pick up some fresh fruits and vegetables.
All this because that one negative thought has contaminated the way you perceive the reality around you.
In this moment you will realize finding a safe place to relax your mind will do wonders for your emotional and mental improvement.
That place is relatively easy to find. It can be an actual place or an imaginary location. The best idea is to totally lose yourself in it.
Let us say you have a problem on your mind and it just would not go away. Go bowling. Do not know how? Just give it a shot.
Get caught up in the game. Your mind will drift away from the negative thoughts that dominated your last hours or days and start processing a whole new kind of information.
A safe haven can take many forms. It can be a song, a movie, even a person or animal. The main thing is allow yourself to get completely involved with this new activity.
You might still get flashes of the problem every now and then. Ignore it and get even more absorbed in what you are doing.
When the bowling game, the song, or the movie ends you will abruptly return to reality. You will probably want to retreat back to the safe place. Do not do it.
The safe place exists only as a helping hand, not as a solution to your life's problems, may it be a small or big. It serves only as an escape route.
You will return from your safe zone with an increased energy level. You will feel better about yourself and gain more confidence. You will see that any issue can be resolved.
This is how a small escape from a harsh reality can increase your emotional and mental health. Try to do this often and you are on your way to better self improvement.
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In his book The Winning Attitude, John C. Maxwell, noted author and speaker tells us that attitude is:
The “advance man” of our true selves
Has inward roots but outward fruits
Is our best friend or worst enemy
Is more honest and more consistent than our words
Is an outward look based on past experiences
Is a think which draws people to us or repels them
Is never content until it is expressed
Is the librarian of our past
Is the speaker of our present
Is the prophet of our future
Your attitude, or your willingness to think positively, affects many people—from your family to the stranger you smile at in the grocery store. An optimist will see opportunity in difficulties, while a pessimist will see difficulty in opportunities.
You must choose which you will focus on: if you choose poorly, you will doom yourself to never achieving your goals and being successful. Count on that.
So how do you begin to think positively if you’re a natural pessimist? I don’t really believe there ARE natural pessimists, just people who have been taught how to consider the darkest side of every cloud.
You cannot change the fact that a problem exists, but you can do a lot to determine what opportunity is within that problem. Begin to see that problems are a fact of life and that your job is to find a way over, around, under, or through them—as quickly as possible. When you’re upbeat and consider how quickly a problem will be behind you, it’s easy to be optimistic.
Cynicism is another killer when it comes to attitude. It’s a cousin of pessimism—it considers everything suspect and everyone as having an ulterior motive. It never looks at someone handing you a piece of candy just to be nice, it always considers that there is a reason you’re being handed the candy and the motivation of the person who’s giving it.
Cynicism comes from having unrealistic expectations. Many people expect great and wonderful things to happen to them with little-to-no work on their parts. They expect things to fall from the sky in to their laps. When it doesn’t happen as they expect, they become suspicious of others who have achieved success and ultimately, cynical.
You must harness the power of your thoughts and words when setting your course for success. Use positive affirmations daily: remind yourself that a stumbling block is temporary and that you will overcome it; admit to yourself that you are courageous and able to move on when others cannot; agree with your vision for your life and your goals.
As you discipline yourself to do this, you will find optimism and positive thinking chasing you down the street. And who couldn’t use these two friends when we’re aiming for success?
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Incorporate these skills into your strategy for success and you’ll move forward quicker than you ever dreamed!
• Hustle: generally, people who make it big have one thing in common—they are dissatisfied with the status quo. They will not take what is “common” or “expected” and let that define their lives—they move past it and excel. You must work hard and hustle.
• Character: someone coined the phrase, “character is what you do in the dark.” In other words, when no one is looking, will you behave differently than if someone was looking? If not, then you have character. If you are attacked, be tough—not hard. Don’t be a pushover, but be compassionate, gentle, and flexible—especially on procedure (not principle).
• Risk Taking: this isn’t gambling, it’s a willingness to be bold, hearty, and to push forward. People who refuse to take risks are definitely going to lose. If you refuse a new promotion because you’re not confident of your skills, you will likely be passed over when a different chance arrives.
Don’t be afraid of rejection, just take it as part of life and you’ll find there’s nothing to be afraid of—especially in the word “no.” “No” is just another opportunity to find a way around an obstacle and to use creative problem-solving skills.
• Time Management: we all know that one minute has 60 seconds and that one hour has 60 minutes. One day has 24 hours, and one year has 365 days. But one year also has 525,600 minutes. We don’t think about a year in such small increments, but maybe we should. We waste minutes as if they’ll always be around, and the fact is that time wasted is time we can never get back. We might miss a deal or promotion of a lifetime by wasting just a few minutes.
Proper time management is essential as you climb to success. Continue to break goals down in to manageable chunks—do that with relation to your day and the time you’ve been given. You’ll accomplish far more this way and you won’t regret using your time wisely.
• Master Non-Verbal Communication: it is said that our body language and facial expressions do much more communicating than our words will ever do. When the words that you speak don’t match the expressions on your face or the stance of your body, you confuse the listener and muddle your message.
Be aware that when you try to “multi-task,” you often end up short-changing something, and the last thing you want is to short-change people. Don’t try to do too much at once—your willingness to do this tells people they aren’t important, even if you’re expressing your appreciation of their work and effort. Be aware of what message your body is sending off!
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Develop these 5 attributes of a successful person, and you will find yourself moving quickly toward your goals in life!
• Thick Skin: you cannot be easily offended or hurt if you want to be successful. There will always be people who are jealous or envious or out to bring someone else down—you must develop a way to see past that and let it roll off your back, like “water off a duck’s back.”
Ducks have feathers that are tight and their density act like oil—it keeps the duck dry and warm. So when water (cold or otherwise) lands on the back of a duck, it simply rolls off. Let criticism roll off your back in a similar manner—because if you are going to be successful, you will have your share of criticism. Count on it.
• Obedience: although this might seem strange to talk about to adults and not children, it is important to consider that in order to be a leader, you must first learn how to obey a leader. You must learn the principle of loyalty to a leader if you want to lead others.
Once you have learned how to obey and to follow directions, you can lead others and understand what commands and orders do for an organization and an individual. Consider this: 175 of the CEOs of Fortune 500 companies are former US Marines, and 27 US Presidents served in the military.
• Courage: bravery is not courage, but you cannot have courage without being brave. Courage is the moral fortitude to stand up for your character (touched on in the last article) and to do the right thing—even in the face of adversity.
When you have courage, you follow through on your vision. It’s on display every day and only the courageous have the ability to get the most out of life. When you have the strength of your conviction, find the courage to put it in to action. You won’t be sorry you did.
• Intolerance: not exactly what you might expect to find in an article about success, but each of us must be intolerant of any number of things: intolerant of abuse, of injustice, of the things that you know are immoral, unethical, or illegal. If there’s anything in this world you should be intolerant of, those are some of them. I hope you are an intolerant person—in the right way.
• Sense of Humour: if you don’t have a sense of humour, you will fall flat on your face and never be someone who succeeds. A good portion of the road we walk to success is filled with blockades and potholes. If you come up against one and go down, you must have the ability to laugh at the situation and yourself. If you don’t, you will be angry and bitter about your misfortune and never move past it. Laugh at yourself and what you run up against and you’ll find your climb to the top is quicker and more enjoyable than you thought it would be.
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This is a highly recommended video for better understanding the convergence of meditation and science.
Click Here
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According to Hudson (1999), terrorist groups, including those that endorse militant martyrdom, have similarities with religious cults:
They require total commitment by members; they often prohibit relations with outsiders, although this may not be the case with ethnic or separatist terrorist groups whose members are well integrated into the community; they regulate and sometimes ban sexual relations; they impose conformity; they seek cohesiveness through interdependence and mutual trust; and they attempt to brainwash individual members with their particular ideology. (p. 35)
Leaders of terrorist organizations, secular and religious alike, much like those of religious cults, are typically charismatic, enigmatic, authoritarian figures, possibly with psychosis and/or a clinically paranoid personality disorder (Hamilton-Hart, 2005; Lester et al, 2004; Lester, et al, 2004). These figures exhibit strong influential abilities.
Walsh (2001) outlines the trade techniques used by many cults to control their members. One technique Walsh discusses is milieu control in which communications to and from the outside world are controlled by the group leader. Mystical manipulation, another tool used by cult leaders, involves the leader using "extensive personal manipulation" to elicit desired behaviors, including dependency (p. 122). Indeed, some research suggests that suicide attackers are often chosen because of the ease in which they submit to religious indoctrination (Coney, 2003). Prime candidates reportedly consist of immature and troubled youth with few social connections and an absence of meaning in life (Crenshaw, 1988; Laqueur, 1987; Lester, et al, 2004; Stern, 2003). Plous and Zimbardo (2004) further claim that groups attempt to screen out those that do not prove susceptible to the propaganda and manipulation of the group leaders. Demand for purity, another control technique, divides the world into good and evil as defined by the group itself. In this vain, Islamic teachings seek to instill at a very early age the unquestioning obedience to Allah and the calls for purity by religious authority (Post, 2005). A somewhat related technique is the dispensing of existence, in which a line is drawn determining who has a right to live and who does not (Post, 2005; Walsh, 2001). Additional techniques include the sacred science where members are taught that deeper understanding comes from extensive training and unquestioning of group doctrine and loading the language where new meanings of terminology are established to suit the goals of the group (Walsh, 2001). An example of loading the language can be seen in the modification of the Islamic word jihad by the World Islamic Front for Jihad Against the Jews and Crusaders (Knapp, 2003). Another example is the substitution of “martyrdom” for “suicide” (Post, 2005).
Click HERE for the full article.
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Martyrdom is by no means a new concept. In Arabic-Islamic society, the idea of terrorism, or the intentional instillation of fear in the masses, using militant-martyrs appeared in the 11th century in the form of a Shi'i Islam sect known as the Nizari Isma'ilis, or Assassins (Campbell, 2004; Hudson, 1999; Kermani, 2002; Kjeilen, 2003). The Assassins would perform public political murders with nothing more than a dagger so that the act would be well known. In most cases, his target’s bodyguards would immediately kill the Assassin. According to Kjeilen (2003), the Assassins were instrumental in turning terrorism into an Islamic religious duty.
According to Hashhash (2006), “martyrdom is an everyday event that continues to perpetuate itself in Palestine and its representation is a frequent visual motif in Palestinian art, media, and life.” Still, martyrs have been heralded in every religion and every corner of the earth, not just Palestine. However, in recent times, militant martyrdom has almost become synonymous with radical Islam, if not Islam in general, in the minds of some Westerners. After all, Muslim society has endorsed associated tactics. For example, the Shi'ite martyrdom zeitgeist resulted in Iranian soldiers rushing forward into Iraqi mine fields during the Iran-Iraq War (Kermani, 2002). Further, many who were killed or injured were children and teenagers. This same culture of martyrdom opened the door in 1983 for a member of Hezbollah to commit a suicide bombing for the first time in Lebanon (Kermani, 2002).
To read the full article, click HERE
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The psychology of martyrdom is a growing area of interest in today’s world. The need for viable means of confronting, addressing, and ultimately preventing the development of cultures of martyrdom is increasingly drawing the attention of world governments. The following six-part article series, entitled Ego Strength-Frustration Tendencies (ES-FT): Toward a model of predicting militant martyrdom by examining the Israeli-Palestinian conflict,” reviews relevant literature on the topic of martyrdom. Four typologies of martyrdom are defined, with militant martyrdom (i.e., suicide attacks) serving as the focus of the article series. The author reviews different perspectives of the etiology of militant martyrdom, reviews the literature, and concludes that frustration-aggression theory and the effects of systemic psychological victimization best explain this phenomenon. The author further proposes an ego strength-frustration tendencies (ES-FT) model for predicting the tendency toward related social roles based on the interaction of ego strength and frustration. The article series concludes with a discussion of the advantages, disadvantages, and implications of ES-FT. A complete reference list is provided at the conclusion of the series.
For Article One of the series, click HERE
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Exerpt from the guide
RESPONDING TO THE NEEDS OF PEOPLE WITH SERIOUS AND PERSISTENT
MENTAL ILLNESS IN TIMES OF MAJOR DISASTER
PREFACE
Since the mid-1970's, the Federal Government has provided grant support to deal with the psychological consequences of major disasters. Funds for these grants are provided by the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA).
The crisis counseling program managed first by the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) and now by the Center for Mental Health Services (CMHS) provides counseling and training to all who live and or work in areas declared disasters by the President. Within these general guidelines, CMHS and FEMA recognize that there are groups of people who are at greater risk for disaster-related stress, whose needs may require special attention by service providers, or who may have more difficulty using the variety of government services that become available following disasters.
In that spirit, the CMHS Emergency Services and Disaster Relief Branch has produced this technical assistance document to address the needs of people with serious and persistent mental illness following major disasters. Several people with direct experience in disaster services to this population were asked to develop chapters for the publication. Drafts of the document were shared with colleagues, CMHS staff, and an even broader audience for review and comment.
The task was more complex than anticipated. The writers struggled with how to address the needs of people with mental illness while not stigmatizing them further. They explored how, or even whether their needs differ from those who are impacted by largeBscale disasters but do not have a mental illness. And they struggled with the realization that when people with a serious mental illness experience the same disaster-related stress as anybody else, they often are inappropriately and unjustly labeled as experiencing an acute exacerbation of their illness.
This process has yielded two significant results:
First, we identified the need for this document, which is the first guide to use narrative and illustration, from providers, program planners and designers, and administrators of disaster response and recovery programs.
Second, we learned that the needs and desires of people with serious mental illness are closer to the needs desires of the general population following a disaster than previously thought. People with mental illness have the same need for housing, stability, and support as their neighbors in the days following a disaster. They are as capable as anybody else in behaving heroically during and after the disaster event. They have the same difficulties maneuvering through the complexities of the recovery process. And they share the desire to see their lives and communities restored.
In this attempt to identify how to best meet the needs of people with serious mental illness following major disasters, the developers of this document hope that the principles noted here might be generalized to other groups of people who, for a variety of reasons, find it more difficult to access the resources available following disasters.
The most gratifying part of my many years in disaster mental health work has been the privilege of witnessing firsthand the strength and resiliency of the human spirit following major trauma. I have been reminded of how much more the mental health field needs to learn about mental health as compared with mental illness. This project serves as a dramatic reminder that the presence of a mental illness does not preclude an individual from having the resources and strength to physically and psychologically survive a major disaster, and from assisting in the rebuilding of their lives and community following disaster. Indeed, people with mental illness do share the same pain and fear as everybody else.
Ironically, disasters provide a unique opportunity for individuals and communities to focus on the commonality of the human condition when the walls that separate us are both literally and figuratively knocked down. All those who participated in the writing of this document were reminded that the commonality of our needs and desires overshadows our differences.
Brian W. Flynn, Ed.D.
Chief, Emergency Services and Disaster Relief Branch
Center for Mental Health Services
Click HERE for the full guide.
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The final step of most psychological assessment is the write-up. This is when the examiner outlines the assessment process and discusses the results and conclusions drawn from them. It is the final product that will be delivered to the consumer, whether that be the courts, another mental health provider, or a school referrer. It helps to have a template report that a student or examiner can build on to produce a top quality product. I am providing an example of a template I used as a student. It is not intended for students to take as their own, but rather to use as an example of how a simple but thorough template can look.
Click HERE for the example.
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This Guide is intended to provide helpful information. The Guide is not a substitute for professional medical advice, care, diagnosis or treatment, and is not designed to promote or endorse any medical practice, program or agenda or any medical tests, products, treatment or procedures. The Guide may not be completely accurate and does not contain information about all diseases, nor does it contain all information that may be relevant to a particular medical or health condition.
The Guide is brought to you by MedicineNet.com. Click HERE for your free copy.
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Download the contraversial article entitled Social Psychology of Alcoholics Anonymous. This article has been the subject of much debate and contention. Read it and provide your comments.
Click HERE for your free copy.
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ABC News: 27-Hour Surgery Rids Girl of Extra Limbs
Girl Born With 4 Arms, 4 Legs Has Successful Surgery
When I first saw the advertisement for the upcoming documentary on this young girl, I was tempted to consider it some kind of gag put upon the viewers. Then, almost immediately, I remembered that I was watching the "National Geographic Channel" and they are not usually up to such shenanigans. I was so completely intrigued by the story that I immediately did a web search to gather more information and, I must admit, to gain additional assurance I was not having my leg pulled. My search resulted in many articles, including the one linked above.
Apparently, the young girl suffers from a condition in which she is a conjoined twin whose other "self" stopped developing within the womb. Strangely, upon reading the exact nature of her condition I was not as intrigued as when I mistakingly thought her condition may have been the result of genetic mutation. It seems I may have been hoping for some "X-men" fantasy future. Still, just as quickly as my interest had waned, it was peaked again. The child underwent 27 hours to remove the "extra" limbs and organs. It struck me that the "extra" body parts must have been living seeing (from the picture) as they had apparently grown as the child aged. This triggered another thought. The other twin (that was absorbed) must have had what many would call a soul, if one is to go with contemporary Christian thought on when a human being comes into existence as the result of a soul entering the body. If this happens at conception, then the question arises, "does a fertilized egg that will eventually split , leading to twins, have one soul or two?" If it has one, then at what point does the second soul enter? at the point the egg starts to split? once the division is completely accomplished? If one indicates the former, then which soul came first and does that soul have some kind of claim over the other's body seeing as it originally belong to the original soul? If the latter is true, then are conjoined twins one soul since complete division never occurred? I think any observer of living conjoined twins would say no. I also imagine that each of the twins would have something to say about that as well.
So that brings me to what most intrigues me about this young girl. I assume that there must have been two souls at some point due to what we typically consider two separate entities developing, despite sharing one body. However, according to doctors, at some point one of the twins stopped developing. When that happened, did one of the souls leave the body? If so, which one and why? The body was obviously still living. There would be no reason for one of the souls to leave the flesh as it maintained all the necessary organs to continue living. The was a heart to pump blood, lungs to provide oxygen, and a brain to control all the bodily functions. So, is it possible that the young girl's body is inhabited by two souls? I don't think it is beyond reason, although I think it's implications may prove disturbing to religious doctrine. Maybe this is one explanation for tales of possession (I jest). One might argue that each "body" retained it's original soul. This begs the question, by removing the "extra" body parts, were the doctors killing another living being, and committing a sin by denying the soul the body it rightfully deserved as dictated by God (aka murder)?
I would have to assume that the "religious-right" would have no choice but to argue that the doctor's were indeed committing murder based on the premise that both bodies maintained a separate soul. If this were not the case, they would ave a difficult time, I assume, arguing that the living body of one twin did not have a soul and/or that the other twin had two souls. For a living human body to not have a soul would seemingly conflict with the Christian-right's assertion that the soul enters the body at conception and departs at death (did someone mention Terri Schiavo?). Further, if a body can have more than one soul, what existential questions does that raise? Am I really me? Is one of my potentially unlimited souls more responsible for my actions than any other (Scientology anyone)? I imagine that some at this point may bring up the multiple personality disorder theory as supporting evidence for the unlimited inhabiting souls concept. The problem with that is using something that cannot be proven to exist to prove the existence of something that cannot be known. The questions stemming from this little girl are truly astounding. Now, if only the answers came as easily as the questions.
This blog post was originally posted by this author at From Satori To Nirvana on June 8, 2008.
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It was a sunny Tuesday morning when the call came over the two-way radio: “Special Housing to Dr. Smith.” “Go for Dr. Smith,” I replied. “Phone 20?” requested the voice over the radio. After providing my phone extension I received the call informing me that my presence was needed in the Special Housing Unit (SHU) where an inmate had taken his cell mate hostage and was threatening to kill him unless he was placed in a cell by himself. The inmate had somehow managed to tie his cell mate up to the bunk bed frame with torn sheets and had several razor blades taken from disposable razors give to him to shave. As far as hostage negotiations go, this one was pretty straight forward...
Click here to read more
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Stories of sexual deviance and sexual criminal offenses have run rampant in today’s media. From Congressmen to the average person in the general population, the prevalence of socially unacceptable behavior of a sexual nature seems to be ever increasing and occupying the front pages of our news outlets and tabloid gossip columns. But what is the cause of sexual deviance? In this article, the author proposes that sexually deviant behavior is a by-product of our cultural confusion over sexuality. Additionally, while a technical definition of deviant behavior may be any behavior that is “outside the norm” of socially acceptable behavior, for the purpose of this discussion, “sexual deviance” is loosely defined as sexual behavior that is on the verge of or crosses the line into criminal behavior....
To read the complete article, click here
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On January 8, 2011, a disturbed young man approached a public gathering, shot and killed six individuals and left fourteen others injured. Among the injured, and suspected prime target of the violence, was a U.S. Congresswoman who was shot point blank in the head. Five months later, Jared Lee Loughner, the accused attacker, was ruled unfit for trial...
To read the complete article, click here |
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Imagine your 4-year-old daughter vanishes without a trace. You take your story to the police who call a press conference seeking leads from the public. Two days later, you are arrested as the prime suspect in the disappearance of your child. When interrogated by the police, they indicate you became the main suspect after Facebook and Twitter posts were picked up by the local media...
To read more of the article, click here.
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Regarding the client, there are several factors that the administrator should be aware of prior to testing. To begin with, any special needs should be identified. These may include testing location and/or conditions as well as language barriers. Also, the tester should be aware of the benefits of establishing and maintaining good rapport prior to and during testing. Each of these factors could effect the individuals performance on tasks in ways which have no true reflection of their mental abilities.
There are several conceptual considerations that the tester should also be aware of prior to testing. It would probably be a good idea to know the purpose behind intellectual testing, both as it applies to our overall understanding of the world around us and as it applies to the individual client sitting in our office. The tester should understand what the results of a test mean, if anything. The most common purpose of giving intelligence tests as stated in Table 1.2 of the text is to measure the individual’s cognitive potential. However, other justifications for administering these tests are to obtain clinically relevant data, assess the functional ability of the brain, to determine educational and vocational placement, and to develop educational and vocational interventions.
There are several issues regarding the administering process, itself, that the administrator must be aware of. For individuals age 16, the administrator should be aware of the appropriateness of both the WISC-III and the WAIS-III for this age group and be able to determine the more appropriate test for the individual. When actually administering a test, one should have a good knowledge the procedures such as starting and discontinuing subtests and timing requirements prior to testing. Without having foreknowledge of these guidelines, the tester may inadvertently cause one or more subtests to be invalid due to administrator error or at the very least disrupt the testing procedure resulting in a distracted client. With that said, the administrator should have prior knowledge of other types of administration errors, such as neglecting to record responses, not repeating specific parts of the directions verbatim, mishandling stimuli objects, neglecting to ask questions or overpromting, and assigning too many points to a response.
The administrator needs to be aware of the “intelligent testing philosophy” as outlined by Kaufman and Lichtenberger. The five assumptions of this philosophy allow the tester to keep the individual’s test performance in perspective by acknowledging that the tasks are only a small measure of the client and that they are not the only measure. Unfortunately, not being aware of this philosophy can actually influence the performance of the individual through a poorly trained tester’s non-verbal cues, if the said tester does not understand the true role of the tasks in relation to the “bigger picture.”
Other things that it would not hurt to have foreknowledge of include the relationship between IQ and education, the prediction of academic achievement, the relationship between IQ and occupation, and the prediction of job performance. Having a firm grasp of these concepts can allow for deeper understanding of the client and better interpretation of results. An understanding of the construct validity of different scales would likewise add to the testers understanding of results.
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| Intellectual testing has its origins in ancient China when about 2000 B.C. the Mandarins set up a civil-service testing program as a means for determining which citizens would better serve the emperor in a particular capacity. Over 3000 years later, the first oral examinations in law were held at the University of Bologna establishing the academic tradition still used today of passing one’s “orals” and orally defending one’s dissertation. Modern intellectual testing arguably began in France with Francis Galton in the late 1800’s. However, rather than creating a true measure of intelligence, Galton’s test actually measured sensory abilities and motor skills. Later, in 1905, Alfred Binet and Theophile’ Simon developed the first practical intelligence measure. Unlike Galton who made no distinctions between children and adults, Binet and Simon’s test centered and was concerned solely with the assessment of children, creating a trend that would last for several years until the Wechsler scales came into existence in the United States and took the intelligence measuring business by storm. Today, the Wechsler tests have been adapted for used in Australia, the United Kingdom, Europe, the Netherlands and Puerto Rico. Still, different parts of the world have created their own measures relevant to their own needs. For instance, the ACER test is extremely popular in Australia. IQ testing is primarily a western European and American phenomenon. In Asia, testing focuses more on performance tasks; in Russia, the common practice is to test up to the individual’s limit and then provide “hints” to see the individual’s potential with assitstance.
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